The People’s Republic of China (PRC) has systematically implemented a colonial system in Mongol regions*, replicating historical colonial practices worldwide. Embedded within this agenda is a mandate for ideological indoctrination, a pervasive feature of the PRC’s governance. While the relocation of Chinese populations as a colonial tactic is not exclusive to Southern Mongolia, what distinguishes the Mongol case is the extensive and enduring utilization of this strategy by Chinese settler colonialism. The practice of relocating Chinese populations to exert dominance over traditionally non-Chinese nations and regions has been notably prevalent in Southern Mongolia. Importantly, this phenomenon did not always arise from policy decisions; rather, it began much earlier, even preceding the emergence of the Communist regime, and has had far-reaching effects compared to other colonial regions under the PRC, underscoring the distinctiveness and gravity of the Chinese approach in this context. The destructions of China’s Cultural Revolution, coupled with the devastating genocide against the Mongol people in the 1960s**, left indelible marks on Southern Mongolia. These historical atrocities not only prompted further waves of Chinese settlers into the region but also exacerbated the cultural tensions and resistance against the erosion of Mongolian identity and sovereignty. In 1981, as the government devised plans to settle millions more Chinese in Southern Mongolia, Mongol students led month-long, region-wide demonstrations, which garnered widespread support from Mongols across all walks of life. This marked a pivotal moment of unified resistance against the erosion of their cultural identity and sovereignty. The overarching aim of assimilating Mongols is evident in China’s educational system implemented in Southern Mongolia. Through initiatives such as the boarding school system and the ban of Mongol language, Chinese authorities enforce their colonial goals, seeking to eliminate the distinctive identity of the Mongols—a source of resentment among the Chinese. These measures aim to eradicate Mongols’ language, culture, and way of life, contributing to the challenges faced by Mongols in preserving their identity amidst assimilation efforts. Following, let’s explore the broader implications of China’s educational strategies in Southern Mongolian regions in relation to the ongoing complexities of identity politics in the region.
The Impact of the Boarding School System
Since its occupation by Communist China in 1949, Southern Mongolia has consistently served as a testing ground for China’s most malicious ethnic policies and practices. China’s colonial boarding school system was no exception. Even prior to the establishment of PRC, parts of Southern Mongolia were subject to the Chinese Communists’ boarding school influences. Lured by the promise of providing free modern education, children were sent to the Chinese communist base in Yan’an, Shaanxi, for communist ideological indoctrination.
The decades-long strategic migration of Chinese populations into Southern Mongolia has led to significant environmental degradation. Instead of acknowledging their role in this historical destruction, Chinese authorities have shifted blame onto the traditional nomadic pastoral lifestyle of the Mongols. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, they began implementing policies such as “Ecological Migration” and “Urbanization.” These policies involved the closure or consolidation of thousands of rural Mongolian schools with existing Chinese schools in urban areas, where the Chinese population is dominant. Mongol children were compelled to leave their communities for boarding schools in towns and cities. This approach, akin to “killing two birds with one stone,” aims to dismantle the age-old Mongolian way of life, which has long defined the distinct characteristics of the Mongols, while also fracturing Mongolian communities and families.
The strategic emigration and exploitation of natural resources by the colonial Chinese government directly contributed to ecological destruction and degradation. However, they viewed this devastation as an opportunity to introduce additional policies such as the Ecological Migration and further strengthen the boarding school system. This included not only further Chinese emigration and the plundering of natural resources but also tightening the Chinese grip on land and the minds of Southern Mongols. These measures aimed to undermine the traditional nomadic pastoralism that served as the cornerstone of Mongolian identity. This distinctive lifestyle set the Mongols apart from the Chinese, a fact that the Chinese had long resented.
In 2021, according to Chinese official statistics, Southern Mongolia housed a total of 2,087 boarding schools, comprising both elementary and middle schools, spread across its 76 banners and counties. These boarding schools collectively accommodated approximately 1.07 million residential students. Notably, the proportion of residential school students in Mongolian-concentrated areas exceeded that in Chinese-concentrated areas. For instance, in regions like Shiliingol League and Hingaan Leagues, the proportion of residential students soared to as high as 70-80 percent.
The Linguistic Impact: Language Ban and Assimilation
The Chinese government’s policies towards the Mongols, aimed at the ultimate assimilation of their cultural and linguistic identity, have intensified in recent years under the leadership of Chairman Xi Jinping. This shift is exemplified by the implementation of the ‘Second Generation Ethnic Policy,’ which not only prohibits Mongolian from being the language of instruction in schools and kindergartens but also extends to broader campaigns aimed at erasing Mongolian culture altogether. These efforts are part of the ‘Firm Inculcation of the Chinese Nationality Common Identity’ initiative.
At the beginning of the new school year in September 2020, the Chinese government implemented a policy banning the teaching of the Mongolian language in Mongol schools. This decision represented a notable escalation in the government’s assimilation efforts, leading to widespread defiance and strikes among ethnic Mongols.
In response to the language ban, thousands rallied against the removal of Mongolian language, staging protests including street demonstrations outside government agencies. Reports emerged of children fleeing from their schools and classrooms in groups, often without being located by their parents. Tragically, at least nine suicides and thousands of arrests occurred during the protests. Additionally, the traditional Mongol script social media app, Bainuu, was shut down at the height of the protest and remained closed for about three months. The government attempted to mitigate backlash by falsely claiming that only three subjects—history, literature, and morality—would be taught in Chinese. However, by autumn 2023, all subjects had quietly transitioned to being taught exclusively in Chinese, revealing the extent of the government’s deception and the severity of its assimilation efforts.
With the successful implementation of the language ban, subsequent steps are being taken to exclude Mongol language and literature from higher education entrance exams. These changes will inevitably impact the educational and career trajectories of current Mongol students, with subjects previously taught in Mongolian considered obsolete.
Furthermore, textbooks have been altered to reflect Chinese characteristics, and any overt display of Mongolian language or culture is often seen as a threat to national unity. This linguistic suppression has led to ruptures in family relationships, as young children actively avoid Mongolian language interactions with their parents and grandparents.
The government’s assertion that Mongol teachers will undergo training to teach in Chinese has been met with skepticism, given doubts about their competency. Additionally, protests against the language ban have erupted, leading to arrests and social repercussions for families resisting the policy.
Moreover, a region-wide mass training program as part of the “Firm Inculcation of the Chinese Nationality Common Identity” initiative, targeting individuals of all ages and backgrounds, pressuring them to embrace Chinese culture and traditions while condemning expressions of Mongolian national feeling. Mongolian students, teachers, and rural herders are compelled to speak Chinese, and Mongolian language instruction in schools has been banned.
This suppression of Mongolian language and culture is part of China’s broader assimilation agenda, exacerbating tensions in Southern Mongolia and driving many Mongols to flee to independent Mongolia in search of refuge and preservation of their cultural identity.
Linguistic Refugees
Amidst the myriad challenges faced by Mongols in Southern Mongolia, including the banning of their language in schools and the erosion of their traditional way of life, a significant exodus has emerged. Fleeing from an increasingly oppressive societal environment, many Mongols are seeking refuge in the independent state of Mongolia. This migration is driven by dual motivations: firstly, to escape the harsh social and political conditions and restrictions imposed by Chinese authorities, and secondly, and perhaps more significantly, to ensure their children have access to education in their native language. These individuals, often referred to as linguistic refugees, are compelled to uproot their lives in search of a more hospitable environment where their cultural and linguistic heritage can be preserved and nurtured.
According to recent estimates, the number of Mongols fleeing Southern Mongolia to independent Mongolia has been steadily increasing over the past decade. Reports indicate that in 2023 alone, approximately 5,000 individuals made the journey across the border, seeking refuge from escalating cultural repression and educational restrictions imposed by Chinese authorities. Among these migrants, a significant proportion were families with young children, driven by the urgent need to secure access to education in their native language. This phenomenon underscores the critical role of education in shaping migration patterns and highlights the challenges faced by linguistic minorities in preserving their cultural identity in the face of state-sponsored assimilation efforts.
In conclusion, China’s educational policies in Southern Mongolia reflect a broader strategy of cultural assimilation and population control aimed at consolidating state power and promoting homogeneity. Through the colonial boarding school system and the systematic banning of the Mongol language, the Chinese government has sought to erase the unique cultural identity of the Mongol people, leading to widespread resistance and displacement. Despite international condemnation, Beijing remains steadfast in its efforts to suppress Mongol culture and language, exacerbating tensions in the region. The exodus of linguistic refugees highlights the profound impact of these policies on individuals and families, underscoring the importance of education in preserving cultural heritage and identity. As the struggle for linguistic and cultural rights continues, it is essential to recognise and support the resilience of the Mongol people in the face of adversity.
*The term “Southern Mongolia,” collectively preferred by Mongol activists, encompasses all Mongol-inhabited regions under Chinese colonial occupation, including ‘Inner Mongolia,’ within the current framework of China. It specifically denotes the southern and western parts of the greater Mongol nation.
**The genocide against the Mongols in the 1960s refers to the deliberate and systematic campaign of extermination and brutality inflicted upon the Mongol people by the Chinese government.
Dugarjab L. Hotala
Dugarjab L. Hotala is a Southern Mongolian activist, independent scholar and the founding director of InterMongol Network, a US-based Non-Governmental Organization aimed at preserving and promoting the cultural as well as kinship ties between all parts of the greater Mongol Nation.
